Sunday, June 29, 2003		Books

Bengal in medieval times
Ivninderpal Singh

The Bengal Sultanate; Politics, Economy and Coins (AD 1205-1576)
by Syed Ejaz Hussain, Manohar, Delhi. Pages XVIII +435. Rs 1,100.

THE geo-political conditions of Bengal, especially its long distance from Delhi, put constraints on its control by the Sultans of Delhi. Taking advantage of the difficulty in communication by land or water and Bengal’s hot and humid climate, which often did not suit soldiers, its governors frequently asserted independence from Delhi. Moreover, the control of Bengal by Delhi depended a lot on the capability and assertiveness of the Sultan. Whenever the power of the Delhi Sultan weakened or he was involved elsewhere, nobles virtually acted as de facto rulers of the region.

The book deliberates upon the history of Bengal from its conquest by Mohammad Bakhtiyar Khilji after ‘defeating’ Sena dynasty ruler Lakshmanasena in the first decade of 13th century till its annexation by Mughals in 1576 by overthrowing its last Afghan ruler. The entire period of the Bengal Sultanate was marked by intrigues, power struggle and successionist tendencies.

The eastern conquests by Bakhtiyar Khilji ran parallel to the Turkish exploits in North-West India by Aibak, a general of Mohammad Ghori. After Bakhtiyar Khilji established his sway over south Bihar, he conquered Mithila (comprising north Bihar and strip of Nepal hills).Then he turned to capture Gauda (northern and western Bengal) and established Sultanate rule there without any contest as Lakshmanasena fled to Vanga.

But his failure in the Tibet campaign sealed his fate. After coming back from this campaign, he was killed by one of his generals, Ali Mardan Khilji. The first encounter between Sultans of Delhi and the Bengal governor occurred during the reign of Iltutmish (1211-36 AD), who after the death of Changez Khan (1224 AD), felt no danger to his infant empire from the north-west. As the Bengal governor, Ghiyas-ud-din Iwaz Khilji, was growing powerful, Iltutmish wanted to rein in his increasing influence. At first, Iwaz acknowledged Iltutmish’s sovereignty and gave up his claim over Bihar. However, this success of the Delhi Sultan was short-lived, as Iwaz again captured Bihar as soon as Sultanate forces went back. Then Iltutmish sent his son, Prince Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, who killed Iwaz, ending his 14-year rule.

Now, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became the governor of Bengal and this was the beginning of Memluk hegemony over Bengal. Seventeen governors ruled Bengal during this period (1227-1300 AD) before dynastic rule was established there. One of the governors, Mughis-ud-din Tughril, dared to rebel against Balban, who himself marched to Bengal and quelled the revolt.

Dynastic rule in Bengal was established by Shams-ud-din Firuz Shah-I (1300-22 AD). In 1324 AD, the reigning Delhi Sultan, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, defeated one of Firuz’s successors. He reorganised the administration of Bengal and divided the region into three administrative units — Lakhnauti, Sonargaon and Satgaon.

Expansion and stability in Bengal was established when Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah (1342-57 AD) usurped the throne and founded Ilyas Shahi dynasty. He undid the partition of Bengal and ruled a united Bengal. One of his successors, Ghiyas-ud-din Azam Shah (1390-1410 AD), established diplomatic and cultural relations with China and the growth of the port of Chittagong stimulated the increase in trade with the Far East. He was followed by three weak rulers. At this time, Raja Ganesh, a Brahmin zamindar, came into prominence. He raised his son, Jadu, to the throne after converting him to Islam with the title of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah. But Ilyas Shahi dynasty was revived by one of the descendants of Ilyas Shah, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah (1434-59 AD).

During the last phase of the Ilyas Shahi rule, Abyssinians held an upper hand in politics. They ruled Bengal for about eight years (1487-1494 AD). The last ruler of Habshi clan was replaced by his wazir Syed Husain Sharif, who founded Husain Shahi dynasty, which ruled Bengal from 1494 to 1538 AD. This period witnessed economic prosperity and cultural synthesis among Hindus and Muslims.

During the reign of Mahmud Shah, the last Husain Shahi ruler, forces of disintegration began to dominate in Bengal and it became a centre of triangular contest for power, with Afghans. Mughals and the Portuguese vying for supremacy. Finally, Sher Khan (later Sher Shah Suri) turned Mohammad out of Bengal in 1538. Mahmud invited Mughal emperor Humayun to Bengal to check his rising power. Sher Shah allowed Humayun to reach Bengal but he blocked all routes to Delhi for Humayun. Later, Sher Shah defeated the Mughal emperor at Chausa, though he dealt the final blow at Kannuj next year, and captured the throne of Delhi.

Chronology is the backbone of history. And the author has followed this principle in letter and in spirit. Reigns of all governors and kings, their succession and other political developments have been given in chronological order and they are supported by numismatic evidence. Throughout the book, wherever the author has contested any previous historical finding, he has mentioned numismatic evidence on the basis of which he has reached this conclusion.

Moreover, besides the political history, the author has given due emphasis to the administration and economic history of Bengal. He has discussed all levels of administration — central, provincial and mahal (a shiqq which comprised a small tract of land). Describing economy, the book contains detailed information on urban centres, zamindari system, non-agricultural economy, local, coastal and overseas trade and currency. The author has provided a list of rare coins along with their pictures.

It is an informative book and students of history as well as research scholars, especially who are tracing history using coins as the historical material, should not miss this one. An exhaustive index will also be helpful to researchers. This book is,however, highly priced for a common reader.