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| SCIENCE TRIBUNE | Thursday, January 2, 2003, Chandigarh, India |
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Human cloning: troubling questions Sound waves as refrigerants |
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Human cloning: troubling questions
The recent claim of a human cloning company named
Clonaid to have produced a cloned baby has once again brought to the
fore the issues of ethics and process of human cloning. A biomedical
research company in Massachusetts had also claimed in November, 2001,
that their scientists were successful at cloning for the first time a
human being. The theologians, scientists, physicians, legal experts
and public in general worldwide have expressed scepticism and great
irritations over these claims as most of the countries, including the
USA and European Union, had already put a ban on human cloning around
five years back. The Clonaid claims to be the first human cloning
company founded in February, 1997, by Rael, a spiritual leader of the
Raelian Movement. This is an international organisation with around
55,000 raelians all over the globe. Rael thinks that cloning is the
first step in the quest for eternal life and claims that life on earth
was created some 25,000 years ago through cloning by a human
extraterrestrial race whose name Elohim, appears in the Hebrew Bible.
The main goal of Clonaid since its inception was no doubt to produce a
human clone despite the ban on cloning. The cloning is not new. It
has been used for many years to produce plants, frogs, toads etc. The
prospects of cloning a human being, however, turned bright when the
first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep, was successfully delivered in
Scotland in February, 1997. Since then, it became one of the foremost
thoughts on people’s mind. Cloning is the process of producing a
genetically identical organism via parthenogenesis or a sexual means
i.e. without the fusion of a sperm and an egg. In human cloning, the
aim is for the two cells to fuse to become one. Scientifically
speaking, human cloning is achieved by using the technique of nuclear
transplantation where an egg devoid of its nucleus (enucleated egg)
gains a full set of genes or chromosomes from the cells of an adult
(donor) and behaves as if it has been fertilised. The adult cell may
be any cell (e.g. a skin cell) of the adult body except the
reproductive cell as the reproductive cell contains half the set of
chromosomes. This so called fertilised egg or manipulated egg or
prompted egg is implanted into the womb of a woman where it ultimately
develops into a human embryo, which later on is delivered as an
identical replica or clone of the adult. A few scientists have rather
called human cloning as a "time delayed genetically identical
twin" of the donor rather than his or her replica. Because they
believe that it is not possible to transfer the memory and personality
of the donor to the newly cloned as the environmental factors and
random events are surely bound to be different during the development
of a newly cloned. The clone may not, therefore, be the same person
except for in looks and genes. Moreover, researchers have now put
forward the hypothesis that the genetic contribution to looks, such as
height, complexion etc. are also affected by environmental factors.
This further strengthens the view that clone is merely a genetically
identical twin rather than a replica. There are proponents as well as
opponents of human cloning. Those who are in favour of human cloning
say that human cloning can be used both for therapeutic and
reproductive purposes. Hence the name "therapeutic cloning"
and "reproductive cloning". Therapeutic cloning uses the
early stage cloned embryos to take out special cells called embryonic
stem cells which have the potential to develop into any other type of
cell in the body e.g. liver cell, pancreatic cell, skin, blood, heart
muscle, brain cell etc. These stem cells can be implanted into the
body to treat various diseases like diabetes, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s,
heart diseases, cancer especially blood cancer and autoimmune
disorders. The therapeutic cloning will also be of great help in case
of organ transplantation. Imagine a situation where a person needs
organ transplantation. It is not only difficult to get an organ but
there are also very high chances of organ rejection because of the
organ incompatibility. Therapeutic cloning will enable the person to
have cent per cent genetically identical organ from his or her own
clone. This genetically identical organ will be fully compatible for
transplantation and hence will not be rejected. Reproductive cloning
represents a new reproductive method that is different from sexual
reproduction and in vitro fertilisation (IVF), a form of artificial or
assisted reproduction. Reproductive cloning can give life to an
identical twin of the original cell donor. The infertile couples can
therefore, have a child of their own genetic makeup. The homosexuals
can also have children by using the technique of reproductive cloning.
Moreover, the families who have lost a beloved relative, or a nation
its great leader, can now think of having his or her so called
genetically identical replica by availing reproductive cloning
technology. One can also raise an identical child at least in terms of
genetic makeup after unfortunate death i.e. cloning the dead. The
opponents of human cloning, which include people from all sections of
society, are, however, of the view that the use of terms like
"therapeutic cloning" and "reproductive cloning"
yields only confusion and merely depicts the intention for their
ultimate use. They believe that there are no valid justifications to
produce human clones either for reproductive reasons or for generation
of human embryonic stem cells. They consider that all forms of human
cloning are unnecessary and immoral and have raised many ethical,
religious, social, legal and biological issues pertaining to human
cloning. The opponents are of the opinion that one can use other
outstanding advances in research and medicine such as using latest
biotechnology products like recombinant insulin, pharmaceuticals and
surgical methods and the use of adult stem cells rather than embryonic
stem cells for the treatment and cure of the serious diseases as an
alternative to human cloning. Is human life so cheap that we should
kill the cloned embryo after getting the desired organ or should we
clone an embryo for the sake of having an organ for transplantation?
Is life of the patient requiring an organ transplant worth more than
an intentionally killed innocent cloned embryo? Are these cloned
embryos not human beings entitled to any dignity and rights? Many
religions believe that all persons have dignity because they were
created in the image of God and cloning violates this dignity. It also
violates God’s intentions by choosing the genes of the children
instead of leaving it up to God. Moreover, will it be possible to
clone the human soul as well? There are fears that clones may be
treated as mere commodities or objects and might not be treated as
equals or respected as unique individuals. A black market for cloned
embryo may also come up where issueless couples could buy the clone of
an embryo. The cloning may lead to malformations or diseases in the
human clone as the technology is highly complicated and have greater
risks and potentials for errors. It is worth mentioning that Dolly the
sheep, was not produced at first attempt but after 277 attempts as a
healthy viable lamb. Cloning may encourage parents to compare their
cloned child to the adult from whom it was cloned and therefore value
their cloned children according to how well they meet expectations
instead of loving them as they are. This will not only affect the
quality of parenting and family life but will also impart a sense of
diminished individuality and personal autonomy in a cloned individual
besides disturbing the psychology as well. Last but not the least,
is the clone an offspring or a sibling? On the one hand, the
relationship between an adult and the child cloned could be described
as that of a parent and offspring. The clone accordingly then has one
biological parent. On the other hand, clone is a sibling if it is
considered as the genetically identical delayed twin. The clone in
this case has two biological parents, not one — they are the same
parents as those of a person from whom the adult cell was taken for
the clone to be developed. The human cloning thus undermines the
structure of a family by making identities and lineages ambiguous.
This, in turn, raises certain legal complications in societies like
ours. The list of such ethical, moral, social, legal and biological
issues is no doubt expanding day by day. There is, however, a great
diversity of opinion over these issues posed by the possibility of
human cloning. Dr lan Wilmut, the scientist credited with the first
cloned mammal Dolly the sheep, called the cloning of humans
"appalling". The 18-member panel of United States National
Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC) created in 1995 by the then US
President, Bill Clinton, to investigate the bioethical, legal and
clinical issues related to human cloning reported in May, 1997, that
human cloning is morally unacceptable for anyone in the public. The
commission also stated that the President should continue with the
moratorium on human cloning as it also has great deal of risk and
uncertainty. The great deal of risk and uncertainty prevails even now.
The scenario has not changed with time. Human cloning still looks
unnecessary and immoral and is surely going to raise troubling
questions in future as well. The writer is Assistant Professor,
Department of Physiology, Govt Medical College, Kangra (HP) |
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Sound waves as refrigerants In a major leap, scientists have developed a
technology that converts sound waves into refrigeration, which could
lead to more environment-friendly and efficient household and
industrial products. The research team, led by Steven Garrett,
professor of acoustics at Pennsylvania State University in College
Park, says the thermoacoustics process, demonstrated at a conference,
could be a viable alternative to chemical refrigerants. Thermoacoustics
can work both ways, by removing heat or adding heat. Scientists used
tweaked loudspeakers to create high amplitude sound waves in the
air. The amplitude levels were far higher than those at rock
concerts, where the decibel level is around 120 at 165 decibels, the
sound level is intense and in the friction gas undergoes huge acoustic
undulations. In the thermoacoustic chilling system, Garrett’s team
used 173 decibels and generated five kilowatts of power, the
equivalent of nearly 7 horsepower, and managed to bring cooling
temperatures down to 8 degrees below zero, well below the freezing
point. "Eventually, the day would come sooner when we may see
thermoacoustic chillers in home refrigerators," Garrett told the
media. Ganesh Raman, an Indian associate professor in the mechanical,
materials and aerospace engineering department at Illinois Institute
of Technology in Chicago termed the research "revolutionary,
exciting and a major leap that comes once in a while". PTI
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NEW PRODUCTS & DISCOVERIES Flexible flashlight
The high-intensity Krypton bulb of this
flexible flashlight is encased in a waterproof head, and even lights
under water if needed. It focuses from flood to spot beam, so it works
for detailed jobs, as well as providing a wide general light
source. The flexible neck is nine inches long when fully extended,
and wraps compactly around the case when not in use, which reduces it
to a pocket-sized gadget, with a mounting clip for security. An extra
bulb and an attachable red filter for subdued light are included.
Artificial retina
work
Some visually impaired people soon could benefit from a
microchip electrode array designed to stimulate the optic nerve with
simple image information, researchers say. The array, now the subject
of $ 9 million in funding from the Department of Energy, would work on
conditions such as macular degeneration, where the nerves still
function but the eye is unable to transform light into signals the
brain can interpret. The Energy Department funding, spread over three
years, will build on previous work supported by the National Science
Foundation and the National Institute of Health’s Eye Institute,
said Mark Humayun a retinal surgeon and a biomedical engineer who has
led the project at the University of Southern California’s Doheny
Eye Institute in Los Angeles. UPI
Of mice and men
Hey, are
you a man of a mouse? From today, it may take a little longer to
answer that question. For a new study comparing genes between humans
and mice concludes that there is just the slenderest numerical
difference between Man and Mickey. Both species have around 30,000
genes, but in both cases, only about 300 of them are unique. But it is
that difference that determines whether we turn out to be Homo septens
or Mus musculus. The genetic similarities and distinctions have
stunned researchers, who published the sequence and analysis of the
mouse’s DNA code, or genome, in the British weekly journal
Nature. After a three-year endeavour which climaxed with publication
in August, the Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium unscrambled roughly
95 per cent of the 2.5 billion chemical "letters" in the
mouse genetic code. AFP
"Methuselah
genes"
Mice
lacking a copy of an important metabolism gene live to the human
equivalent of a century, according to new research on inherited
longevity. The gene encodes a protein called insulin-like growth
factor (IGF-1), the study, published in Nature, the British weekly
science journal, says. Mice which had been genetically changed to
lack one copy of this gene live on everage 26 per cent longer than
normal counterparts, without any known side-effects, say the authors,
led by Martin Holzenberger of the Hospital Saint-Antoine in
Paris. One reason for this appears to lie in oxidative stress, an
ageing and disease-causing process by which cells are damaged by
roving molecules with unpaired electrons. AFP
Energy from
dead animals
Swedish companies have developed a way of burning
dead farm animals that generates energy while reducing the risk of mad
cow disease. The Swedish Board of Agriculture said it would give $
276,000 in grants to three companies developing the method, in which
cadavers and animal byproducts are incinerated without the traditional
step of first grinding them into meat and bone meal. "We
believe that this will be the future way of getting rid of this type
of material," said Stig Widell, a spokesman for the state agency.
"You just grind them down to minced meat and off they go into the
furnace." Avoiding the step of making meat and bone meal makes
the process quicker. It also ensures cadavers and animal byproducts
aren’t recycled for animal feed. Mad cow disease, also known as
bovine spongiform encephalopathy, is believed to spread through cattle
feed that contains meat and bones from infected animals. AP |
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